Crystal structure minerals

Minerals are basic constituents of rocks, which builds lithosphere of the Earth,
and other planets, their satellites, asteroids and meteor.
Performance of minerals:
-homogeneous structure,
-defined chemical composition,
-certain structures of properly distributed in space (crystalline) or without an order (without amorphous-crystalline structure).
Only minerals with a crystal lattice are called crystals.

Minerals consist of atoms, ions, ionic groups and molecules that may be connected in various ways (ionic bond, covalent bond, electrostatic forces, van der Waals forces).
Mineral grains vary in size (visible eye, microscope, electron microscope-macro, micro.
The performances of crystallized minerals depend on the ingredients and location
grid, which is a reflection of their geometrically correct spatial
schedule. There are 6 crystall system.
Performance of minerals:
-Cleavage, hardness, density, color, luster,
-Velocity of light, heat and electricity,
-Angles of refraction and reflection,
-Radioactivity, magnetic properties, etc.
Polymorphism-chemical combination of the same chemical composition of different forms of crystal lattice (eg graphite and diamond-C or calcite and aragonite).

Classification of minerals according to chemical composition
Silicate minerals
Their spatial structure of form, face, or chain connected SiO4 tetrahedra which are located between the metal atoms (silicon atom in the middle, and the tops are tetrahedron of oxygen atoms).
1) Spatial linked tetrahedra with all four of the top (60% of the lithosphere)
feldspar (Orthoclase and sanidine), plagioclase (albite-anortite)
2) Flat View linked tetrahedra in single and dual low
associated layer-characterized by strong cleavage.
micas (muscovite, biotite), chlorite, talc, clay minerals (kaolinite, illite, montmorillonite)
3) Single chain linked tetrahedra
(Pyroxenes)
4) Double chains of tetrahedra
(Tremolite, actinolite, hornblende, glaucophane)
5) silicate minerals with independent tetrahedra

Earth crust layers

Crust
-Average depth beneath the continents is about 40 km,and 10-12 km beneath the ocean,
-Chemical composition of the most complex as a result of geochemical differentiation during formation of the Earth and the physical and chemical changes which subsequently occurred.
Continental crust-acidic aluminosilicate rocks (granite)
-SIAL (Si + Al),
-Miss at the bottom of the ocean.

Oceanic crust-mafic rocks (basalt) + covering sediment deposits average thickness in the oceans ≈ 450 m,
SIMA-(Si + Mg)
In basaltic crust are sometimes printed and rocks from the upper mantle.
Lithosphere (crust + upper mantle)
The lithosphere is the common exposed structural(Tectonic changes).Structural changes usually are caused by the dynamics of asthenosphere.
The two surfaces of discontinuity(Wiechert-Guttenberg(Core / sheath) and Moho (crust / mantle).
Isostasy
Isostasy is a balance between the dipped pieces (blocks) broken off the Earth crust that floats on the plastic and denser upper mantle (like a piece of wood or icebergs that float on water).Simplified, eg by Buoyancy, body immersed in water because of its weight oust the amount of water equal to their volume.Simply put, we can imagine the broken off pieces of bark to dive into the upper mantle and in accordance with its weight of push mantle, where each piece is in equilibrium with the adjacent piece because each piece has the same mass.
If we imagine that parts of the crust and upper mantle form separate vertical columns, then it is at the bottom of their bases the same pressure.
GRAVITY
The force of gravity between two objects varies depending on the mass of objects and their mutual distances according to the relation:
         mA* mB
G = k --------------
              l * l

The force of gravity increases with the mass of observed objects and the reduction of their
distance (between the celestial bodies, stars and planets and their satellites is much higher than between two objects on the Earth).

General structure of the Earth

The shape of the geoid
Due to rotation of the masses at the poles the Earth is flattened, and its size in the continental rises above the shape of a rotational ellipsoid, and in the oceans under the form of a rotational ellipsoid.
(er=6377 km, rp= 6356km)

Density increases from the surface toward the center (2.7 to 11 g/cm3),
The temperature rises from the surface towards the central part (4000 -5000 ° C)
Early Earth was probably a uniform heterogeneous chemical composition and density.
The temperature of the early Earth during the aggregation process has reached the melting point of the elements iron and nickel, which were thicker and heavier than the spec of other ingredients and concentrated in the center of the Earth. At the same time, the lighter elements that form the silicate minerals are pulled toward the surface, forming the mantle and crust.Geochemical differentiation was made lupin, layered or zonal structure of the Earth which, in the middle of dense Fe-Ni core, the iron-rich silicate mantle and the silicate Earth's crust.
Crust (barysphere)
-depth> 5080 -2900 km, the mean density of ≈ 10.7 g/cm3, T = 4000 -5000 C,
-inner core-solid core of iron and nickel
-Depth> 5080 km,
-outer-core liquid alloy of iron and nickel, probably contains some light elements like oxygen and sulfur
-Depth: 2900 -5080 km,
-Liquid-metal mass convection motion → important for restoring geomagnetism.

Mantle
1) the lower mantle or the Mesosphere
-Depth to ≈ 2900 -1000 km
-Oxides and silicates, probably a little iron
-Heterogeneous environment, revealed differences in the moving speed of the waves and the density molten material.
2) Middle mantle or asthenosphere
-Depth of ≈ 1000-400 km
-Heterogeneous environment, revealed differences in the moving speed of the waves and the density matter,
-Established thermal dynamics of the convection layer with accompanying movement of molten material.
3) The upper mantle
-To a depth of ≈ 400 km,
Rocky and built from the ultramafic rocks (peridotite beneath the continents, Eclogite, below the oceanic crust and lercolit harcburgit)

The oceans, seas and lakes

Oceans and seas make up about 71% of the Earth's surface. The out flow of water from the land carrying sediment and dissolved substances are considered to around 90% of all sediments originated in the marine environment.

Sea water contains 32-37% o (42% o) of dissolved salts, which varies depending on climatic and local conditions (cold ocean water must have less dissolved salts from the warm sea).
The temperature of sea water depends on the climate zone (0-4oC Polar Sea, 20 to 27oC equatorial sea).
The dynamics of seas and oceans is dependent on the relationships in the solar system (the influence of moon phase, solar activity), the difference in temperature and density of sea water, changes in the atmosphere, earthquakes, volcanic activity, etc.
Tides are caused by Earth's rotation and the action of attractive forces of Moon and Sun (the solar influence is much smaller).
In the interval a little longer than 24 hours of Earth in relation to the moon turned a way to form two high and two low tides.
Triggered by the huge mass of water so the high tide sea water destroys the coast, while the abb tide pulls the destroyed material back into the sea.
Ocean currents are caused by differences in temperature and density of sea water, tidal action and winds.
The waves usually occur because of the influence of wind or air currents above the sea surface (hurricanes, typhoons), followed by the eruption of underwater volcanoes, submarine sliding and earthquakes (tsunami).
Depending on the sea depth and seabed conditions of life, the dynamics and sedimentation are distinguished:
-coastal area
-shallow area, (continental threshold),
-continental slope, or agree,
-oceanic plains

The coastal area is a tidal zone, characterized by: a steep or gentle coastline, deltas, estuaries, Lyman, lagoons.
• steep coast areas, the destruction or abrasion,
• mild flat areas of accumulation of material
The fan delta forms of river mouths formed a rapid accumulation of material transported from the mainland.Accumulation of transported material gradient is reversed, and the mouth of rivers in alluvial deposits more cuts short flows meander.In the marine environment near the land is in large sediment particles (sand), then something finer (silt and powder), and
furthest tiny particles of clay.
Estuaries are flooded river valleys open to the sea, caused by the insertion of the sea into the land. They are usually deposited sands.
Lagoon is small enclosed area filled with sea water occasionally separated from
land. They are poorly expressed due to dynamic changes of water and sediment is often expressed by evaporation sediments.

Shallow area
-Reaches 200-400 m depth,
-Divorced-relief,
--Diversity of sediment (climate, salinity, dynamics, purity limestone sea-cliffs, and biogenic sediments,
-In shallow parts formed gravel and sand deposits.

Continental slope, or agree reaches a depth of 200-400 m to 2000 -3000 m depth.
- In the area of sedimentation affect surface ocean currents and turbid (turbidity) currents at the bottom.
- Surface currents carry small floating organisms(plankton) and small particles of sediment (clay, limestone).
- Turbidity currents caused by sliding of material from the submarine slopes and carry clastic material (from dimly flow is first deposited larger, then all sorted, resulting in finer grain size, horizontally, or in the direction of current flow opaque.
- The sediments of this area are sand and gravel, marly and clayey sediments, sludges and organic ooze or sapropel, named after the Black Sea-Pontus Euxinus.

Dynamics of the Earth

Insolation, the effects of water, groundwater, springs

Geological factors external dynamics of the Earth:
-Radiation from the Sun-insolation,
-Water,
-Snow and ice,
-Effects of organisms

Insolation-illumination

Insolation to heat the rocks in the lithosphere and leads to expansion of certain mineral constituents.Stretching is not uniform because of various physical and chemical properties of minerals that build a rock, and is not uniform in depth of rock (on the surface is more intense).At night when there is no sunshine ,rocks cools and tightens.

Multiple repetition of heating and cooling of the cohesion forces between mineral-poor, resulting microcracks and cracks that are increasingly wider and deeper, until it finally came to the disintegration of rock.
Resistance of rocks to the impact of insulation depends on the mineral composition, structure and texture of rocks, vegetation, thickness of cover, relief and climate characteristics.
Effect of insolation is more pronounced in areas with large temperature differences between day and night in Coarse heterogeneous composition of the rocks.

WATER-atmospheric, surface and groundwater

Water participates in the destruction (physical and chemical)of rocks, transportation and accumulation of fragments and particles, thus affecting the characteristics of relief:
-in a humid area of its physical and chemical attack is most prominent,
- in the glacial area, works mostly mechanical (glaciers, rock disintegration by freezing water in cracks),
-in the arid area mechanically destroying the mechanism fragments and particles at small distances, and participates in the chemical dissolution of rock.

Layers of the earth atmosphere

Troposphere

The troposphere is the lowest region in the Earth's (or any planet's) atmosphere.It’s the layer in which you live. On the Earth, it goes from ground (or water) level up to about 11 miles (17 kilometers) high. This layer is where we would see most of the clouds and where most of the weather conditions would take place.It is the densest atmospheric layer, containing almost 90% of the atmosphere’s total mass.All the weather and clouds occur in the troposphere.The tropopause is the boundary zone (or transition layer) between the troposphere and the stratosphere.

Stratosphere

The layer above the troposphere is called the stratosphere.The stratosphere extends between 11 and 31 miles (17 to 50 kilometers) above the earth's surface.The main thing about the stratosphere is that it has the ozone, which is made up of ozone molecules that absorb the ultraviolet rays from the Sun and shield us from its extremely harmful effects.Ozone is a molecule that is made up of three oxygen atoms (instead of two oxygen atoms).

Mesosphere

It is the coldest atmospheric layer and this is where meteors usually burn up when they enter Earth’s atmosphere.The mesosphere extends from between 31 and 50 miles (17 to 80 kilometers) above the earth's surface. The mesosphere is characterized by temperatures that quickly decrease as height increases with temperatures as low as -93°C at the top of the layer. and this is where meteors usually burn up when they enter Earth’s atmosphere.

Thermosphere

The thermosphere is the upper most layer of the atmosphere.temperature increases with altitude, due to the many gases in this layer absorbing solar radiation. Temperatures can reach as high as 1,700°C.It is said that because of the extreme low pressure, a person would not feel the heat. This layer also produces auroras, which are natural bright colored display of lights in the sky. They are mainly seen at night and in the Polar Regions.

Biosphere and atmosphere

All the ecosystems of the Earth consists of a functional unit called the Biosphere (spheres of life). The unity of animate and inanimate nature is not limited to ecosystems, but also extends to the entire planet Earth. Biosphere consists of other parts of the Earth's sphere inhabited by living beings:

* Atmosphere, a layer of air that makes the peripheral lining of our planet;
* Hydrosphere, the water layer of the Earth and
* Lithosphere, the outer, surface, hard cover of the Earth.

                             In this picture we see the top of atmosphere

The atmosphere is a gaseous layer around the Earth or another celestial body.
Earth's atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth and retained by the Earth's gravity. It contains about four fifths nitrogen and one-fifth oxygen, with the amounts of other gases in traces. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation and reducing temperature extremes between day and night.

The atmosphere does not end abruptly. It slowly becomes thinner and gradually disappear in the universe. There is no definitive boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. Three-quarters of the mass of the atmosphere lies within 11 km of the planet's surface. In the United States to persons who travel above an altitude of 80 km called the astronaut. Height of 120 km marks the boundary where atmospheric effects become apparent during the spacecraft entering the atmosphere. It is also often a limit of the atmosphere and the universe takes the Kármán line at a distance of 100 km from the surface.

 Layers of the atmosphere:

-Exosphere
-Thermosphere
-Mesosphere
-Stratosphere
-Troposphere

Biosphere history

The term biosphere was first used by a geologist named Eduard Suess in 1875. He defined biosphere as “the place on earth's surface where life dwells". Vladimir I. Vernadsky refined the definition in 1926, placing the biosphere concept in its current position as one of the spheres in Earth Systems Science. The biosphere is the life zone of the Earth and includes all living organisms: the trees in the park, the birds in the air, fish in the rivers and oceans, the fly on your wall, the viruses that make you sick, bacteria in the trash can, mold on the bread, your pets, and even you and all your friends. The biosphere also includes all organic matter that has not yet decomposed (rotted). The biosphere is interconnected in the other Earth system spheres (Atmosphere, Lithosphere, and Hydrosphere)
Biosphere.

By volume, most of Earth’s biosphere is cold and marine, with 90% of the ocean’s waters at 5°C or colder. Fully 20% of Earth’s surface environment is frozen, including permanently frozen soil(permafrost), terrestrial ice sheets (glacial ice), polar sea ice, and snow cover.


The biosphere has evolved since the first single-celled organisms originated 3.5 billion years ago under atmospheric conditions resembling those of our neighboring planets Mars and Venus, which have atmospheres composed primarily of carbon dioxide. Billions of years of primary production by plants released oxygen from this carbon dioxide and deposited the carbon in sediments, eventually producing the oxygen-rich atmosphere we know today. Free oxygen, both for breathing (O2, respiration) and in the stratospheric ozone (O3) that protects us from harmful UV radiation, has made possible life as we know it while transforming the chemistry of earth systems forever.

The biosphere is a core concept within Biology and Ecology, where it serves as the highest level of biological organization, which begins with parts of cells and proceed to populations, species, ecoregions, biomes and finally, the biosphere. Global patterns of biodiversity within the biosphere are described using biomes.

Biosphere I's total surface area is about 197,000,000 square miles. Approximately 75% of of this is covered in water. The other 25% is divided primarily into seven major land masses or continents. On each of these continents exists the various necessities of life, including air, water, soil, and food. However, the ecosystems that are able to survive and produce on each continent vary widely.

The Earth is a complex balance of her ecosystems. It is the first biosphere, and thus obviouly the model for Biosphere II. Earth contains six ecosystems, including marshes, farmland, savannahs, deserts, oceans, and rainforests. Biosphere I contains countless different plant and animal species, as well as a wealth of minerals and fossil fuels. The basis of life within the Biosphere is mutation and natural selection as forms of self-preservation.